IN THE BLOOD: NORSE LIFE

THE FOLLOWING IS about the Norse during the age of their great expansion. Three modern countries comprise the core region of Scandinavia: Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. Finland and Iceland are part of a larger group of Nordic countries which also includes Scandinavia.

Norwegians, Swedes, and Danes share a common culture and speak a common language. Their society is largely based on hunting, agriculture, fishing, and animal husbandry. Norway has its fjords, Sweden its lakes and streams, Denmark its 500 islands. These geographic features help to turn the Scandinavians seaward. However, although they are known for their longships, they also keep many horses.

Despite the cold and often unforgiving environment, the Norse celebrate numerous festivals and holidays, reflecting their deep connection to nature and the changing seasons. These celebrations often involve feasting, storytelling, and various forms of entertainment, further strengthening the bonds within their tightly knit communities.

LITTLE VIKINGS:

Children play with wooden swords, model boats, and farmsteads made of clay. They are also fond of all kinds of outdoor ballgames. In winter children hear adventure stories and play board games and dice.

            Girls are trained to run the household, and to become expert weavers and spinners. Boys learn to plow straight furrows and cut firewood before they are deemed old enough to sail out with the men.

HALL and HOME:

The Norse build houses of wood or stone. They are thatched with straw, reeds, or turf. Families work, cook, eat, and sleep in one big room with a raised fireplace in the center.

The great hall is the heart of the Norse community, serving as a place for feasts, meetings, and celebrations. Built primarily of wood, often with intricately carved beams, and adorned with tapestries depicting heroic sagas and gods.

Inside, long tables flank a central fireplace, providing warmth and light. During feasts, tables are laden with roasted meats, fish, bread, and ale. The air fills with the aroma of cooking fires and the sound of laughter and conversation. Men, women, and children gather here to share stories and songs, reinforcing communal bonds.

By day, the hall functions as a workspace for crafts and discussions about trade or defense. Children play in the corners while elders share tales of wisdom. In the evenings, the hall becomes festive with skalds reciting epic poems and musicians playing traditional instruments, leading to dancing and merriment.

The great hall symbolizes unity and strength, embodying the resilience, traditions, and community spirit of the Norse people in a challenging world.

  Since they make all their own clothing, every home has a loom. Norse women are extremely skilled in weaving clothing as well as carpets.

LIVING OFF THE LAND:

The harsh climate and rugged terrain of their homeland fosters resilient and resourceful people. Norse men and women are adept at utilizing every aspect of their environment to sustain their communities. Hunting, gathering, and farming ensure they are well-fed, while their skills in craftsmanship and trade allow them to acquire goods that are not locally available.

         Fish is a main staple. It can be dried and stored. The forests of Scandinavia are rich in game and edible plants. Larger game animals include deer, elk, moose, and wild hogs.

        Farmers grow barley for beer and porridge, rye for bread, and oats for animal feed, also beans, peas, and cabbage. Cows and goats are raised for dairy products. Sheep are raised for wool, chickens for eggs, ducks, and geese for their down.

THE THING IS…:

Sometimes thieves and murderers run amok. Sometimes twisted family ties lead to feuds.  And sometimes people reject tradition. All such crimes and societal disputes can be hashed out at a “Thing.”

The Thing is an open-air meeting of the freemen in the district. It meets regularly to settle arguments about divorce, thefts, murder, and land ownership. Things work as both courts of law and governing bodies.

Sometimes the issues at Things are settled by duels to the death. Sometimes an accused person must undergo certain painful ordeals to prove they are telling the truth. And sometimes new laws are enacted.

EXPLORATION and CONQUEST:

The Norse possess a genius for exploration. They embark on trading and colonization expeditions that range as far away as Greenland. The Vikings also sail to the east, into Russia. Vikings are known to have visited what are now at least 37 countries, from the Americas to Greece. However, trade and exploration were not always first in mind.

Swashbuckling seafarers led by minor nobles, the Vikings steer their bobbing ships across the seas, leaving death and ruin in their wake. They raid France, England, Scotland, and Ireland. Pagans all, they sack monasteries with impunity and only take prisoners if they might make a worthy slave.

In France they sail up the Seine and plunder Paris, up the Loire and sack Nantes. The monk Ermentarius of Noirmoutier wrote: The Vikings over-run all that lies before them, and none can withstand them. They seize Bordeaux, Perigueux, Limoges, Angouleme, Toulouse; Angers, Tours, and Orleans are made deserts. Ships past counting voyage up the Seine, and throughout the entire region evil grows strong. Rouen is laid waste, looted and burnt: Paris, Beauvais, Meaux are taken. Melun’s stronghold is razed to the ground, Chartres occupied, Evreux and Bayeux looted, and every town invested.

The Viking longship is used in battle and for long voyages. The knorr is a shorter, wide-bellied ship used for trading. The development of the keel makes them sturdy enough to carry a sail. This makes them faster, and able to handle open seas. Built of oak, and highly decorated, with carvings they are as beautiful as they are strong.

The most legendary of Norse expeditions is one of discovery—the voyage of Leif Ericson around the year 1000. When Leif learns that another Norseman, Bjarni Herjulfsson has sighted a tree-covered coast west of Greenland, he and his followers set sail to see it for themselves.

Howard LaFay summed up their expansionism up as follows … Danes and Norwegians generally steered their longships down through the North Sea toward the fat and ill-defended coast of Britain, Ireland, and continental Europe. The Swedes thrust across the Baltic into the vast birch forests and steppes of Russia. … these men of the north, or Norsemen, terrorized a Europe sundered by the decay of Charlemagne’s Frankish Empire.

COMMERCE: 

Swedish adventurer-merchants thrust across the Baltic into the east, where they are called the Rus. Their legacy lives on as Russia takes its name from them. They also use the rivers and the Caspian Sea as trade routes with the Middle East. The Arab author Ibn Fadlan, writes of an encounter with the Rus on the Volga: “I have never seen more perfect physical specimens, tall as date palms and blond and ruddy …”

In addition to their trading exploits in the East, the Norse engage in commerce with Western Europe. They establish trade routes that connect Scandinavia with the British Isles, the Frankish Empire, and beyond. Trading hubs such as Hedeby and Birka become bustling centers where goods like furs, amber, wool, and iron are exchanged. Norse traders are known for their craftsmanship, particularly in metalwork and textiles, which are highly sought after in European markets.

Norse merchants often trade with silver, which they obtain from various regions, including the Middle East and Central Europe. This silver is melted down and formed into ingots or used to create intricate jewelry, both of which are popular trade items.

The Norse capitalize on their maritime prowess, developing advanced shipbuilding techniques that allow them to navigate vast distances and establish far-reaching trade networks. These commercial ventures not only enrich Norse society but also foster cultural exchanges with diverse peoples, leaving a lasting impact on the regions they connect.

The serpent shaped ships, with names like Great Dragon or Long Serpent are sublime works of art. Some as long as seventy feet, with a mast and 15 oar ports along each gunwale. The cargo might include trade goods such as furs, amber, honey, weapons, or slaves.

DEATH:

The 1970 National Geographic article The Vikings speaks of burials, “usually with weapons, household utensils, and food interred with the remains. A great man or a great lady merited a fully fitted ship as a sepulcher: slaughtered horses, hounds, and slaves accompanied the dead on that final voyage. Lesser men would be buried with boats. Those of no resources would, at the very least, have graves covered by stones arranged in the outline of a boat.”

Warriors who die in battle are promised the reward of Valhalla. They are conducted there by Odin’s handmaidens. The Valkyries carry them to Valhalla to banquet on pork and mead until the day when the gods themselves will fall in battle.

Ibn Fadlan describes a funeral in which a girl slave is burned with her master. The man’s ship is drawn ashore, and wood is piled beneath it. The richly dressed corpse is carried onto the ship and seated on the mattress. They place food and drink and weapons beside him and bring, “a dog, which they cut in two and put in the ship.” A pair of horses are brought, “then cut to pieces with a sword and put into the ship. They took two cows which they likewise cut to pieces. . .”

            Aboard the ship the slave girl is given a special drink. Men come with sticks and shields. “Thereupon the men began to strike with the sticks on the shields so that her cries could not be heard, and the other slave-girls would not be frightened and seek to escape death with their masters.” The girl is laid beside the corpse and put to death. The closest relative of the dead chieftain then sets the ship afire. “The flames engulfed the wood, then the ship, the pavilion, the man, the girl, and everything in the ship.”

POLITICAL STRUCTURE:

The political structure of Old Norse society is complex and multifaceted, consisting of various levels of governance and social stratification. At the highest level, there are kings or chieftains, known as Konungs in Sweden or in Iceland as Godar, who hold authority over specific regions or territories. These leaders are often chosen based on their lineage, military prowess, or ability to maintain the loyalty and support of their subjects. Kings and chieftains are responsible for making important decisions, leading their warriors in battle, and overseeing the administration of justice within their domains.

Below the kings and chieftains are the local lords or jarls, who manage smaller regions or communities on behalf of their higher-ranking leaders. Jarls have significant autonomy and power, including the ability to collect taxes, enforce laws, and maintain their own retinues of warriors. They play a crucial role in maintaining the stability and order of society.

The next level of the social hierarchy consists of free farmers or Karls. These individuals own and work their land, contributing to the agricultural productivity and economic stability of the community. Karl farmers are essential to the sustenance of the Norse society, providing food and resources for both local consumption and trade. They are often involved in communal decision-making processes through assemblies known as “things,” where they can voice their opinions and participate in the governance of their communities.

At the bottom of the social ladder are the thralls or slaves. Thralls are typically captured in raids or born into servitude and are considered the property of their masters. They perform various labor-intensive tasks, including farming, domestic work, and craftsmanship. Although they have limited rights and freedoms, thralls are an integral part of the Norse economy, contributing significantly to the wealth and productivity of their masters.

The stratification of Old Norse society is not rigid but somewhat fluid, allowing individuals to ascend or descend the social ladder based on their achievements, wealth, or circumstances. For instance, a karl can gain wealth and influence through successful trade or raids, potentially rising to the rank of jarl or even king. Conversely, a jarl or king who loses the support of their followers or suffers significant losses in battle can see their power and status diminished. And thralls may win their freedom in various ways.

This hierarchical structure fosters a sense of order and stability, with each class contributing to the overall functioning and prosperity of the community. The interplay between the different strata also facilitates cultural exchanges and the transmission of knowledge and skills, leaving a legacy for future generations.

WORSHIP:    

Religion plays a central role in Norse life. They worship a pantheon of gods and goddesses, the most prominent being Odin, Thor, and Freya. Rituals and sacrifices are conducted to gain favor from these deities, seeking protection, bountiful harvests, and success. Norse mythology, filled with tales of heroism, adventure, and the supernatural, provides a rich tapestry of stories that are passed down through generations.

They believe the gods watch their every move, and that magical beings linger in parallel realms.  There are giants, dwarfs, elfs, trolls, and undead, each with their own supernatural powers and specific domains. There are as many as thirty Norse gods. Some of the more important figures are listed here:

• Odin – presides over Valhalla, a warrior’s paradise.

• Hel – is not just the land of the dead, but also the name of its goddess.    

• Bragi – God of poetry—has runes cut into his tongue.

• Freya – Goddess of fertility and love—drives a magical chariot drawn by cats.

• Loki – God of mischief—also a little giant.

• Njord – God of sea and winds, also fire—aids men in sailing and fishing.

• Ull – God of the hunt and archery—also the god of skiers.

The Norse worship their deities through various rituals and ceremonies, many of which are held outdoors in sacred groves, on mountaintops, or by bodies of water. These natural settings are believed to be imbued with spiritual significance and serve as conduits between the mortal world and the divine. The most common form of worship involves offerings, or “blots,” which can range from food, drink, and precious items to animal sacrifices. These offerings are meant to appease the gods and ensure their favor.

Central to Norse religious practice is the concept of fate, or “wyrd,” which is seen as an ever-present force governing the lives of individuals and the outcomes of events. The Norns, three mythical beings, weave the threads of fate, determining the destinies of gods and humans alike. As such, rituals often include prayers and invocations to influence these cosmic forces and secure a favorable path.

Festivals and communal gatherings play a significant role in Norse religious life. Seasonal celebrations, such as Yule (midwinter) and Midsummer, mark important agricultural milestones and are occasions for feasting, storytelling, and collective worship. These events foster a sense of community and reinforce social bonds, as people come together to honor their shared beliefs and traditions.

The Norse also hold deep reverence for their ancestors, who are believed to continue influencing the living from the afterlife. Ancestral spirits, or “disir,” are honored through rituals and special ceremonies, often held in burial mounds or family homesteads. By seeking the guidance and protection of their forebears, the Norse maintain a spiritual continuity that links past, present, and future generations.

RUNES as WRITING and MAGIC: The characters of the runic alphabet are not only used for writing but are believed to possess magical properties. The Norse inscribe runes on weapons, amulets, and even stones to invoke protection, victory, or other supernatural benefits. Bind runes combine two or more runic characters into a single symbol, strengthening their magical power and meaning.  

MISCELLANY:

The art of court poets, or skalds, follows a complex, rigid formula that features elaborate metaphors called kennings. It’s common to go into battle with a complement of skalds behind the shield-wall.

Luck ranks above skill, intelligence, or virtue.

Many Viking leaders paint their eyes and braid their hair. They wear flashy clothes, and heavy jewelry—each piece telling a story of some adventure.